Paul Hoffman’s superb study of the Spanish defense of the Caribbean in our period (see below) introduced me to a type of fighting vessel that I had never imagined would be present in the war theater, much less an important factor operationally and tactically. This was the boat called the patache de remos (oared patache), or just plain patache.
Hoffman’s brief but well executed glossary defines the patache as:
“A two-masted open boat often fitted with oars or sweeps, varying in number from ten to eighteen to a side, with a total of from twenty to thirty-six. Ranging in size from 60 to 200 toneladas burden, they were very swift under sail or oar and were used as tenders for larger ships. The name seems to be derived from an Arabic adjective meaning `rapid, active’.”
Hoffman speculates that the French use of the patache, which was Spanish or at least Moorish in origin, was possibly in imitation of the Spanish or the “inspiration” of pirates in the Indies “becalmed within sight of a prize.” Nonetheless, beginning in 1549, piratical depredations by pataches, often operating in tandem with larger sailing vessels, were noted.
It seems that some of the pataches were transported to the Antilles in pieces and there assembled and fitted-out for service with corsair flotillas. In response, the Spanish employed their own pataches and larger galleys.
Source: Hoffman, Paul E. The Spanish Crown and the Defense of the Caribbean, 1555-1585: Precdent, Patrimonialism, and Royal Parsimony. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1980.
Rod Langton makes miniatures in 1:1200 scale in his Renaissance Galleys line that appear to be suitable representations of pataches. These are his Bergantine, Fusta, and Galiot models, described as unarmed scout with 9 oars/side, unarmed scout/pirate with 15 oars/side, and lightly armed scout/pirate with 17 oars/side, respectively.
Saturday, January 17, 2009
Monday, January 12, 2009
La Florida: Abbreviations
The number of abbreviations connected with LF posts is mounting. Here is a draft list, which I'll update from time to time.
EPP = Economic Power Potential
FHQ = Florida Historical Quarterly (professional journal)
GOD = The Game Organizer and Director
LF = La Florida (game system)
MPP = Military Power Potential
TPC = The Perfect Captain (web source for gaming systems)
EPP = Economic Power Potential
FHQ = Florida Historical Quarterly (professional journal)
GOD = The Game Organizer and Director
LF = La Florida (game system)
MPP = Military Power Potential
TPC = The Perfect Captain (web source for gaming systems)
Sunday, January 4, 2009
La Florida: Indian Weapons
Several sources were consulted on weapons employed by the Indians of LF. A useful, well-illustrated general source is:
Taylor, Colin F. Native American Weapons. Norman: Univ. of Okla. Press, 2001.
General sources have very little to say about LF, though, and it was necessary to consult specialized sources. Among these, the following was outstanding, and not just for weapons, as the title indicates:
Purdy, Barbara A. “Weapons, Strategies, and Tactics of the Europeans and the Indians in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Florida.” FHQ, 55 (Jan., 1977), 254-76. [I use FHQ as an abbreviation for the Florida Historical Quarterly.]
From Purdy and other sources, it appears that Indian weapons included: bows, spears, clubs, and short swords.
The bows typically were large, resembling longbows, and powerful. They had a range of 200 yards, and the Indians were said to commonly discharge six or seven cane arrows in the time it took a European to reload his arquebus. The bows were so stout that they could also be used as clubs.
Clubs used by the Indians were of various types. Those with stone heads appear to have been used like maces to stun an enemy at the least and to crush skulls and bones at worst. Others, like the macaña had “blades” made of pebbles or small stones that could not be splintered. “It will kill the best armored man,” wrote a Spaniard, “and anyone who hesitates and is struck with the macaña will surely be killed.” Pick-axe type clubs were described by De Soto.
It seems that thrusting-type spears were rarely mentioned in the literature of LF, and references to spears were mainly to dart-like throwing spears.
Taylor, Colin F. Native American Weapons. Norman: Univ. of Okla. Press, 2001.
General sources have very little to say about LF, though, and it was necessary to consult specialized sources. Among these, the following was outstanding, and not just for weapons, as the title indicates:
Purdy, Barbara A. “Weapons, Strategies, and Tactics of the Europeans and the Indians in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Florida.” FHQ, 55 (Jan., 1977), 254-76. [I use FHQ as an abbreviation for the Florida Historical Quarterly.]
From Purdy and other sources, it appears that Indian weapons included: bows, spears, clubs, and short swords.
The bows typically were large, resembling longbows, and powerful. They had a range of 200 yards, and the Indians were said to commonly discharge six or seven cane arrows in the time it took a European to reload his arquebus. The bows were so stout that they could also be used as clubs.
Clubs used by the Indians were of various types. Those with stone heads appear to have been used like maces to stun an enemy at the least and to crush skulls and bones at worst. Others, like the macaña had “blades” made of pebbles or small stones that could not be splintered. “It will kill the best armored man,” wrote a Spaniard, “and anyone who hesitates and is struck with the macaña will surely be killed.” Pick-axe type clubs were described by De Soto.
It seems that thrusting-type spears were rarely mentioned in the literature of LF, and references to spears were mainly to dart-like throwing spears.
Wednesday, December 31, 2008
Organization of the French Cavalry in the 17th Century
Prior to the reign of Louis XIII the company, commanded by a captain and averaging 100 maîtres, was the largest basic tactical organization.
Under Louis XIII the horse was organized for combat in squadrons of 200 men (2 companies; apparently because that was the largest number of troopers that could be controlled by voice command).
In 1634, there were 91 100-man companies of cavalry and 7 companies of carabins. In 1635, the companies were formed into 24 regiments of cavalry, 1 of carabins, and 6 of dragoons, each commanded by a mestre de camp. There were, besides, the 16 Weimarian cavalry regiments. The total was 22,000 horse. The French regiments consisted of 2 squadrons, each of 2 companies (Dussieux, Armée, 2:58-59). The inference is that the French cavalry regiments were 400-men strong. This tallies with the total strength of the cavalry establishment, since the Weimarian regiments were usually stronger than their French counterparts.
In 1636, there were 36 French regiments of 9 companies (8 of light cavalry, 1 of musketeers [so says Dussieux, probably meaning carabins]). A short time later 9 new French regiments were formed, and the number of foreign regiments had risen to 25. There were thus 70 regiments altogether. There were 70-170 regiments of cavalry in the period 1638-1659 (ibid., 59).
In 1668, an important reorganization of the cavalry was begun by Turenne and the chevalier de Fourilles. At the same time the duc de Lauzun reorganized the dragoons.
In 1670 the squadron organization was temporarily re-adopted, but the cavalry was definitively organized into regiments by the ordinance of 4 February 1672, which established the regiment as consisting of 6 companies in 2 3-company squadrons. There were 66 regiments altogether.
Under Louis XIII the horse was organized for combat in squadrons of 200 men (2 companies; apparently because that was the largest number of troopers that could be controlled by voice command).
In 1634, there were 91 100-man companies of cavalry and 7 companies of carabins. In 1635, the companies were formed into 24 regiments of cavalry, 1 of carabins, and 6 of dragoons, each commanded by a mestre de camp. There were, besides, the 16 Weimarian cavalry regiments. The total was 22,000 horse. The French regiments consisted of 2 squadrons, each of 2 companies (Dussieux, Armée, 2:58-59). The inference is that the French cavalry regiments were 400-men strong. This tallies with the total strength of the cavalry establishment, since the Weimarian regiments were usually stronger than their French counterparts.
In 1636, there were 36 French regiments of 9 companies (8 of light cavalry, 1 of musketeers [so says Dussieux, probably meaning carabins]). A short time later 9 new French regiments were formed, and the number of foreign regiments had risen to 25. There were thus 70 regiments altogether. There were 70-170 regiments of cavalry in the period 1638-1659 (ibid., 59).
In 1668, an important reorganization of the cavalry was begun by Turenne and the chevalier de Fourilles. At the same time the duc de Lauzun reorganized the dragoons.
In 1670 the squadron organization was temporarily re-adopted, but the cavalry was definitively organized into regiments by the ordinance of 4 February 1672, which established the regiment as consisting of 6 companies in 2 3-company squadrons. There were 66 regiments altogether.
Monday, December 29, 2008
French Cavalry Uniforms and Dress in the 17th Century
There are few references to uniforms or uniformity of dress in the French cavalry before 1690, when the first uniform regulation for the cavalry was enacted. Before then, uniformity of dress, if any, was up to the mestres de camp. For example, the Gardes du corps were said to have worn blue “turquin” with red bandoleers. The gendarmes had long worn cassocks, or cloaks, emblazoned with the devices or mottoes, or in the liveries, of their captains, and Francis I had ordered that the archers, ancestors of the chevau‑légers, should have the sleeves of their cassocks in the colors of their captains. So, it is reasonable to assume that at least within companies the regular cavalry presented a uniform appearance.
Sydenham Poyntz, an Englishman serving in Gallas' army against the Cardinal La Valette's army in 1635‑‑and a reliable witness‑‑described the French cavalry as "the goodlyest sight that I ever beheld":
A World of brave horse and men coming up a Hill in such order: and the first day they were clad all in horsemens coats of scarlet colour and silver lace; the next day having laid by their coats they were all in bright Armour and great feathers wonderfull beautifull to behold . . . (Poyntz, 120).
However, it was not until 1690 that the French cavalry was uniformed. This was a good 20 years after the infantry was uniformed. Tricorns were not worn until 1697.
Sydenham Poyntz, an Englishman serving in Gallas' army against the Cardinal La Valette's army in 1635‑‑and a reliable witness‑‑described the French cavalry as "the goodlyest sight that I ever beheld":
A World of brave horse and men coming up a Hill in such order: and the first day they were clad all in horsemens coats of scarlet colour and silver lace; the next day having laid by their coats they were all in bright Armour and great feathers wonderfull beautifull to behold . . . (Poyntz, 120).
However, it was not until 1690 that the French cavalry was uniformed. This was a good 20 years after the infantry was uniformed. Tricorns were not worn until 1697.
La Florida: Actors
LF can be played by no fewer than three players. The upper limit of players is potentially quite large, considering the number of real historical actors whose personae are available for players to control (to the extent permitted under the rules).
Actors in LF belong to one of the following categories:
GOD – The Game Organizer and Director
Spaniards
French Huguenots
Englishmen
Indigenous Peoples (Indians and others living beyond the control of the Europeans)
Categorical Actors
Not surprisingly, players gaming these categories are called Categorical Actors. They are the directing or overarching actor in their category and are responsible for all policies, strategies, operational orders, and tactical combats within their purview.
Next: Brief Descriptions of Categorical Actors
Actors in LF belong to one of the following categories:
GOD – The Game Organizer and Director
Spaniards
French Huguenots
Englishmen
Indigenous Peoples (Indians and others living beyond the control of the Europeans)
Categorical Actors
Not surprisingly, players gaming these categories are called Categorical Actors. They are the directing or overarching actor in their category and are responsible for all policies, strategies, operational orders, and tactical combats within their purview.
Next: Brief Descriptions of Categorical Actors
Sunday, December 28, 2008
Carabins and Light Cavalry
Dur Écu sallies forth on yet another foray into the French cavalry of the Thirty Years’ War and finds that the pickings are getting mighty slim.
Carabins
Efficient light cavalry like the Croats, Poles, and Cossacks that served the Imperialists so well was an essential element of the armies of the period. The French, however, were generally quite deficient in light cavalry. This is remarkable, considering the light cavalry tradition of the French army. But the excellent stradiots and useful but shabby argoulets of the Italian Wars and the Religious‑Civil Wars had disappeared, replaced during the reign of Henry IV by the more disciplined carabins, who did some things better but most things worse.
The carabins, so-called because their principal weapon was a 3½-foot long carbine (usually a large-caliber wheellock shoulder arm), originated in the small troops of 25-50 men attached to units of gendarmes and chevau-légers during the latter stages of the Religious-Civil Wars to perform the duties of true light cavalry. Also, some companies were raised as bodyguard units for the princes and generals. Thus, according to Ambert (1:260), the 1st Company of Mousquetaires of the Maison orginated as a bodyguard of carabins of King Henry IV.
Indeed, Henry IV was so enamored of the carabins, who were the elite of his army, that his enemy Parma referred to him as a "carabin." The tradition of excellence, combined with a propensity for derring-do was enshrined in a phrase of the time, applied to any spectacular feat, which was described as an action plutot digne d'un carabin, or a "deed worthy of a carabin."
Besides the large-caliber arquebus, the carabin was armed with one pistol and a sword. He usually wore the cassock and gaiters--not boots--which facilitated his ability to fight on foot (Bellon, Principes de l'art militaire, cited in Ambert, 1:262).
During the reign of Louis XIII the carabins became a separate corps of light cavalry, organized under their own chief, the Mestre de camp général des carabins de France (who reported to the Colonel général de la cavalerie légère). This was likely in 1609, when Balzac de Gié was named Mestre de camp général des carabins (this according to Ambert, 262; Choppin states that the carabins received their own Mestre de camp général only in 1621).
The Mestres de camp général des carabins during the Thirty Years' War were:
Pierre de La Mothe Arnauld, 1621-1622
Isaac Arnauld de Corbeville, 1 April 1622-
The carabins wore a burgonet or a soft hat, the cuirass enchancrée, which appears to have been cut away at the right shoulder to allow the carbine to be couched, and the casaque. Many wore buff coats as well.
On 3 October 1634, there were 7 companies of carabins in the French army. This was 7% of the total of 98 companies. In 1636, the French army in Italy had 16,000 foot and 2,000 horse, including 700 carabins. Thus, the carabins were 35% of the horse in one French army that was deficient in cavalry. But, it would appear that generally the number of carabins in any French army was equal to the number of gendarmes. The Annuaire militaire of 1643 states that there were 12 regiments of carabins.
The carabins gradually died out. They were last mentioned in an ordinance in November 1665, and finally in 1684 they were suppressed.
"Eastern" Light Cavalry
An appreciable number of "eastern" light cavalry served France. These consisted of Hungarians, Croats, and Germans, and were true progenitors of the regular hussars, the first regiment of which was established in 1692. The comte d'Espenan raised a regiment of Hungarian light cavalry that existed from 8 July 1635 to December 1637 and served at the Battle of Avein (1635). There were in addition the Croat regiments of Chack and Raab, which served at Rocroi (1643). Chémerault's Regiment at Lens (1648) may have been Croatian. There were, apparently, 3,000 German and Hungarian light horse serving with the French army in 1640, nearly 17% of the total cavalry establishment, and Louvois is said to have disbanded the same number at the conclusion of Franco-Spanish hostilities in 1656.
The actual representation of light horse in field armies was somewhat smaller, usually because of the participation of ephemeral units of battle cavalry (units of "volontaires," and of the ban and arriere-ban), plus in many instances the participation of foreign heavy cavalry (the Weimarians, etc.). Moreover, in actual battle, the light horse do not appear to have contributed in any important respect to the decision. Two cases illustrate these points.
In the Rocroi campaign the service of light cavalry and dragoons for the French army was performed by the Croat regiments of Chack and Raab and by the Fusilers à cheval (Aumale, 4:41). At the Battle of Rocroi the Croats were deployed "en fleche" with the Gardes de M. le Duc on the extreme right of the first line of cavalry of the right wing. Each of the Croat regiments was organized for combat as one squadron. The peculiar deployment of these units, in which the Croats and the Gardes were thrown forward of the main line of battle en echelon (to the left rear) suggests that they did not participate in the combat in the formal manner of the battle cavalry.
The Fusiliers à cheval were deployed on the extreme left of the first line of cavalry on the left wing. Likewise, they do not appear to have participated in the formal combat of the line of battle. Aumale describes them as being "en observation." The regiment of Fusiliers à cheval was organized for combat in two squadrons.
At Rocroi the French had 6-7,000 horse in 24 regiments and 7 independent companies. These were organized for combat in 32 squadrons, of which 4 were light horse or dragoons. If, as seems likely, the squadrons were of approximately equal strength, about 12.5% of Enghien's horse was light cavalry. (Depending on the total number of cavalry, the squadrons averaged 188 or 219 men, and the total of light cavalry was 750 or 875 troopers.)
At the Battle of Lens only 1 of 45 squadrons in the French order of battle can be positively identified as light horse. The unit was the squadron formed from the carabins, and it was deployed on the left flank of the first line of cavalry on the left wing. Again, if the cavalry squadrons were of approximately equal strength, the representation of light horse in the army would have been just 2.2%. If the squadron formed by Chémerault's Regiment (right flank of the second line of cavalry of the left wing) was Croatian, which is possible, the percentage of light horse would have been 4.4.
Carabins
Efficient light cavalry like the Croats, Poles, and Cossacks that served the Imperialists so well was an essential element of the armies of the period. The French, however, were generally quite deficient in light cavalry. This is remarkable, considering the light cavalry tradition of the French army. But the excellent stradiots and useful but shabby argoulets of the Italian Wars and the Religious‑Civil Wars had disappeared, replaced during the reign of Henry IV by the more disciplined carabins, who did some things better but most things worse.
The carabins, so-called because their principal weapon was a 3½-foot long carbine (usually a large-caliber wheellock shoulder arm), originated in the small troops of 25-50 men attached to units of gendarmes and chevau-légers during the latter stages of the Religious-Civil Wars to perform the duties of true light cavalry. Also, some companies were raised as bodyguard units for the princes and generals. Thus, according to Ambert (1:260), the 1st Company of Mousquetaires of the Maison orginated as a bodyguard of carabins of King Henry IV.
Indeed, Henry IV was so enamored of the carabins, who were the elite of his army, that his enemy Parma referred to him as a "carabin." The tradition of excellence, combined with a propensity for derring-do was enshrined in a phrase of the time, applied to any spectacular feat, which was described as an action plutot digne d'un carabin, or a "deed worthy of a carabin."
Besides the large-caliber arquebus, the carabin was armed with one pistol and a sword. He usually wore the cassock and gaiters--not boots--which facilitated his ability to fight on foot (Bellon, Principes de l'art militaire, cited in Ambert, 1:262).
During the reign of Louis XIII the carabins became a separate corps of light cavalry, organized under their own chief, the Mestre de camp général des carabins de France (who reported to the Colonel général de la cavalerie légère). This was likely in 1609, when Balzac de Gié was named Mestre de camp général des carabins (this according to Ambert, 262; Choppin states that the carabins received their own Mestre de camp général only in 1621).
The Mestres de camp général des carabins during the Thirty Years' War were:
Pierre de La Mothe Arnauld, 1621-1622
Isaac Arnauld de Corbeville, 1 April 1622-
The carabins wore a burgonet or a soft hat, the cuirass enchancrée, which appears to have been cut away at the right shoulder to allow the carbine to be couched, and the casaque. Many wore buff coats as well.
On 3 October 1634, there were 7 companies of carabins in the French army. This was 7% of the total of 98 companies. In 1636, the French army in Italy had 16,000 foot and 2,000 horse, including 700 carabins. Thus, the carabins were 35% of the horse in one French army that was deficient in cavalry. But, it would appear that generally the number of carabins in any French army was equal to the number of gendarmes. The Annuaire militaire of 1643 states that there were 12 regiments of carabins.
The carabins gradually died out. They were last mentioned in an ordinance in November 1665, and finally in 1684 they were suppressed.
"Eastern" Light Cavalry
An appreciable number of "eastern" light cavalry served France. These consisted of Hungarians, Croats, and Germans, and were true progenitors of the regular hussars, the first regiment of which was established in 1692. The comte d'Espenan raised a regiment of Hungarian light cavalry that existed from 8 July 1635 to December 1637 and served at the Battle of Avein (1635). There were in addition the Croat regiments of Chack and Raab, which served at Rocroi (1643). Chémerault's Regiment at Lens (1648) may have been Croatian. There were, apparently, 3,000 German and Hungarian light horse serving with the French army in 1640, nearly 17% of the total cavalry establishment, and Louvois is said to have disbanded the same number at the conclusion of Franco-Spanish hostilities in 1656.
The actual representation of light horse in field armies was somewhat smaller, usually because of the participation of ephemeral units of battle cavalry (units of "volontaires," and of the ban and arriere-ban), plus in many instances the participation of foreign heavy cavalry (the Weimarians, etc.). Moreover, in actual battle, the light horse do not appear to have contributed in any important respect to the decision. Two cases illustrate these points.
In the Rocroi campaign the service of light cavalry and dragoons for the French army was performed by the Croat regiments of Chack and Raab and by the Fusilers à cheval (Aumale, 4:41). At the Battle of Rocroi the Croats were deployed "en fleche" with the Gardes de M. le Duc on the extreme right of the first line of cavalry of the right wing. Each of the Croat regiments was organized for combat as one squadron. The peculiar deployment of these units, in which the Croats and the Gardes were thrown forward of the main line of battle en echelon (to the left rear) suggests that they did not participate in the combat in the formal manner of the battle cavalry.
The Fusiliers à cheval were deployed on the extreme left of the first line of cavalry on the left wing. Likewise, they do not appear to have participated in the formal combat of the line of battle. Aumale describes them as being "en observation." The regiment of Fusiliers à cheval was organized for combat in two squadrons.
At Rocroi the French had 6-7,000 horse in 24 regiments and 7 independent companies. These were organized for combat in 32 squadrons, of which 4 were light horse or dragoons. If, as seems likely, the squadrons were of approximately equal strength, about 12.5% of Enghien's horse was light cavalry. (Depending on the total number of cavalry, the squadrons averaged 188 or 219 men, and the total of light cavalry was 750 or 875 troopers.)
At the Battle of Lens only 1 of 45 squadrons in the French order of battle can be positively identified as light horse. The unit was the squadron formed from the carabins, and it was deployed on the left flank of the first line of cavalry on the left wing. Again, if the cavalry squadrons were of approximately equal strength, the representation of light horse in the army would have been just 2.2%. If the squadron formed by Chémerault's Regiment (right flank of the second line of cavalry of the left wing) was Croatian, which is possible, the percentage of light horse would have been 4.4.
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